A Guide to Marcus Aurelius and Stoicism (Donald Robertson)

A GUIDE TO
MARCUS AURELIUS AND STOICISM
The Philosophy of a Roman Emperor
by Donald J. Robertson

Contents
1. The Stoic Goal of Life
2. Three Stoic Practices
3. Who were the Stoics?
4. Who was Marcus Aurelius?
5. The Imperial Succession
6. Marcus’ Friends
7. Marcus’ Enemies
8. Questions, Quotes, and Reading
9. About the Graphic Novel

donaldrobertson.name
CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Design by Rocio de Torres.
Artwork from Verissimus by Zé Nuno Fraga.

3

THE STOIC GOAL OF LIFE

In 399 BC, Socrates, the most important philosopher of
antiquity, was executed for impiety and corrupting the
youth. His death sent shockwaves through the ancient
world. In the centuries that followed several “Hellenistic”
schools of philosophy rose to prominence, including
Stoicism. It flourished for nearly five centuries altogether,
originating in Greece at the end of the 4th century BC, and
later spreading throughout the Roman empire.
The Stoics’ main rivals were Platonism, Aristotelianism,
and Epicureanism, although Cynicism and Skepticism were
also important movements in philosophy at this time.
Stoicism, though, was the school most focused on training
in psychological resilience, and even resembled modern
psychotherapy in many ways. Stoicism is a practical
philosophy – philosophy as a way of life.
The Stoics taught that the supreme goal of life is arete, meaning “virtue” and “excellence”, or
rather a type of moral wisdom. Indeed, the word philosophy (philosophia) literally means “love
of wisdom” in Greek. The majority of people, however, mistakenly view “external” advantages
such as health, wealth, and reputation, as the most important things in life.
These are not good in themselves, say the Stoics, but only become so insofar as they are
used wisely. In the hands of a foolish and vicious man, by contrast, wealth merely provides
more opportunity to do foolish and vicious things, and the same arguably goes for other such
“external” advantages.

LIVING IN AGREEMENT WITH NATURE
The Stoics described the
goal as “living in agreement
with nature,” by which they
meant living in accord with
human nature, whose highest
faculty they considered to be
reason. For Stoics, living in
accord with nature therefore
means living rationally, wisely,
and virtuously.
They treated the “four
cardinal virtues” of Greek
philosophy as broad
categories referring to the
different forms that moral wisdom takes in different areas of life. Wisdom is the central virtue
but takes the form of justice when applied to our dealings with other people. We require both
courage and temperance to act consistently in accord with justice throughout life, because
otherwise our fears and desires would threaten to draw us in a contrary direction.
•
•
•
•

Wisdom, knowing what is really good (for us and others) as opposed to what merely
appears so
Justice, applying wisdom (plus fairness and kindness) to society and our relations with other
individuals
Fortitude (aka Courage), acting with wisdom in the face of things that most people fear
Temperance (aka Moderation), exercising wisdom in relation to things we typically desire

THREE STOIC PRACTICES
The Stoics taught many psychological practices, intended to help us fulfill our natural potential
by living more consistently in accord with wisdom and justice.
1. CONTEMPLATION OF THE SAGE. Imagine the ideal Stoic wise man or woman, and take
them as your example. How might they cope with different challenges in life? Try to put their
attitudes into words, which you can memorize as short sayings or maxims. Consider examples
such as Socrates, Zeno, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, or other specific role models from history,
fiction, or your own life.
2. PREMEDITATION OF ADVERSITY. Practice imagining different “catastrophes” that could
befall you, as if they’re happening now, while maintaining Stoic objectivity and indifference
toward them. Focus on the distinction between what is up to you and what is not, and allow
sufficient time for your initial feelings to abate naturally. Consider how a Stoic sage would
respond to the same events.
3. CONTEMPLATION OF DEATH. Periodically reflect on your own mortality, viewing it
dispassionately, and as both natural and inevitable. Each morning remind yourself that the day
ahead could be your last; each evening imagine viewing the day behind you as if it were your
last. Try to live grounded in the present moment, appreciating the gift of life as if you’re a guest
at a festival or banquet, which you know will only last for a short while.

THE VIEW FROM ABOVE
This is a fourth Stoic practice, and one of the most popular. Imagine the whole world as if
seen from high above, like the gods looking down from Mount Olympus. Alternatively, try
to imagine the whole of space and time, and your place within things. Consider also the
transience of all material things, and the small span of time that human life lasts.
When Marcus Aurelius describes the View from Above he mentions looking down on
agoras, or marketplaces. Elsewhere he calls the mind rising above violent passions, in this
way, an impenetrable citadel, using the Greek word acropolis. Later in life he would have the
opportunity to actually look down from the famous Athenian Acropolis upon the Ancient
Agora, where Socrates was tried and executed centuries earlier.

Reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum

WHO WERE THE STOICS?

EARLY STOICISM AT ATHENS
The Stoic school of philosophy was founded in
301 BC by a Phoenician merchant called Zeno of
Citium. It drew upon earlier schools of philosophy,
particularly the teachings of Socrates and his
followers. After Zeno died, his student Cleanthes
became the “scholarch” or head of the Stoic
school. He was succeeded in turn by Chrysippus,
a prolific writer and one of the greatest
intellectuals of the ancient world. Together, these
three philosophers defined early Stoicism.
They were followed by a series of scholarchs, one
of whom, Diogenes of Babylon, visited Rome as
part of an embassy in 155 BC. Stoic philosophy
particularly appealed to the Romans because it
complemented their traditional martial values, and
was soon embraced by their statesmen
and generals.
Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism. CC BY-SA
4.0 BEIC Foundation
Heads of the Stoic School
Zeno of Citium
Cleanthes of Assos
Chrysippus of Soli
Zeno of Tarsus
Diogenes of Babylon
Antipater of Tarsus
Panaetius of Rhodes

MIDDLE STOICISM IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
The last head of the Stoic school at Athens, was Panaetius, whose most illustrious student,
Posidonius, relocated to the island Rhodes. By this time, the school appears to have become
decentralized and divided into three branches, corresponding to the teachings of the last three
scholarchs: Diogenes, Antipater, and Panaetius.
Only a tiny fraction of the original Stoic writings survive today. We have fragments from Zeno
and other early Greek Stoics. We should also mention Cicero, although he was not himself
a Stoic, but an adherent of the Academic school of philosophy founded by Plato. Cicero was
a prominent statesman, and a former consul, who died during the final years of the Roman
Republic. He was also one of the most celebrated orators in Roman history, and had studied
Stoic philosophy in Athens. Cicero was somewhat critical of Stoicism but also drew upon
many of its teachings. He was friends with a famous Roman Stoic called Cato the Younger,
whose detailed description of Stoic ethics Cicero portrays in De Finibus.
Cato and Cicero opposed Julius Caesar, who instigated a civil war in an attempt to overthrow
the Republic and appoint himself dictator of Rome. Although Caesar was victorious, before
long he was assassinated by Cato’s nephew, Brutus, and other conspirators. This led to another
series of civil wars, from which Octavian, Caesar’s nephew, emerged as the victor. Octavian
later assumed the title Augustus, and effectively became the founder of the Roman empire.
He studied philosophy under two Stoic teachers, and reputedly wrote an exhortation to
philosophy, although it does not survive today. This set a precedent for Roman emperors, and
other senior statesmen, to take an interest in Stoicism.

LATE STOICISM IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Most of the Stoic writings we have today come from three famous philosophers of the Roman
imperial period: Seneca the Younger, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Seneca was rhetoric tutor
and speechwriter to the Emperor Nero. He wrote many letters concerning Stoicism, which
were apparently meant for publication and read like modern essays.
Epictetus was originally a slave owned by
Nero’s Greek secretary. He gained his freedom,
though, and went on to become perhaps
the most influential teacher of philosophy in
Roman history. Although he wrote nothing
himself, we have four volumes of his discussions
with students concerning Stoicism, called The
Discourses, and a short condensation of some
key sayings called The Handbook or Encheiridion.
The Discourses were transcribed by one of
Epictetus’ students called Arrian of Nicomedia,
who became one of Emperor Hadrian’s most
senior statesmen and generals, and an important
author in his own right.

The last famous Stoic of antiquity was the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, who was
educated in philosophy from his teenage years. He had several teachers, foremost among
whom was Junius Rusticus, who had served in the military alongside Arrian, and gave Marcus
his personal copy of The Discourses to read. Marcus adopted Stoicism as his philosophy of life.
He also kept a series of private notes recording Stoic advice to himself, which we know today
as The Meditations.
Within a few generations, Stoicism was superseded by Neoplatonism as the dominant school
of Greek philosophy, and philosophy in general was eventually eclipsed by Christianity. Early
Christians were, however, often familiar with and sympathetic toward certain Stoic teachings.
The Stoics even get a mention in the New Testament.
While Paul was waiting for them in Athens... A group of Epicurean and Stoic 		
philosophers began to debate with him. – Acts, 17:16-18
Stoicism’s influence on religion and the arts endured down to the Renaissance, when
there was a resurgence of interest in classical literature. A philosophical movement called
Neostoicism appeared in the 16th century, which sought to combine the ethics of Christianity
and Stoicism.
More recently, in the late 20th century, the Stoics were cited by the founders of modern
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) as the philosophical inspiration for their research, which
has led to psychotherapeutic treatments supported by modern clinical trials. Since then, its
popularity has grown rapidly in the self-improvement sector.
Stoic Writings
Seneca wrote various letters, dialogues, and tragedies, the best known being a collection of
124 letters addressed to his friend Lucilius, sometimes called the Moral Letters.
Epictetus himself wrote nothing but his teachings were transcribed in The Discourses and
summarized in The Handbook or Enchiridion by his student Arrian.
Marcus Aurelius wrote his philosophical reflections in a private notebook, published after his
death, which is known today as The Meditations.

WHO WAS MARCUS AURELIUS?

Marcus Aurelius was Roman emperor from 161-180 CE. He is also the last famous Stoic
philosopher of antiquity. We know more about Marcus than about any other Stoic because, as
emperor, he was such an important historical figure. We learn about his personal reflections
on philosophy from The Meditations.
These notes show him applying Stoicism to many aspects of life. They also contain a few
clues about Marcus’ personality. Anger, for instance, is one of the recurring themes of The
Meditations, and Marcus describes at least ten different ways of coping with it. We know he
struggled to control his own temper, and often became angry with Rusticus, his main Stoic
teacher, because he mentions this in the first chapter. He also tells us a lot about the family
members and teachers who influenced him, beginning with his paternal grandfather, whose
freedom from anger Marcus praises.

We also gain remarkable insights into Marcus’ character from a collection of letters discovered
in the 19th century. They contain conversations between the Latin rhetorician Fronto and
several of his friends and students, most notably Marcus Aurelius. Marcus comes across as
good humored and very affectionate toward his close friends. We can see that he took his
duties as emperor extremely seriously, and was perhaps even a workaholic.
We also learn a great deal about Marcus from several Roman histories.

•
•
•

Cassius Dio’s Historia Romana
Herodian’s History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus
The Historia Augusta, whose chapter on Marcus is attributed to Julius Capitolinus

There are also many passing references to Marcus and his empire in other ancient sources.
In addition, we have many surviving references to Marcus’ legislative actions in Roman legal
digests, which show that he consistently adopted a progressive attitude toward improving
the rights of women, children, and slaves. He didn’t believe in sudden change, though, as The
Meditations says we must be satisfied if we make small steps in the right direction toward our
political ideals. We even have evidence from archeology, in the form of statues, inscriptions, and
coins, etc., dating from the time of Marcus Aurelius.
Marcus was born into a very wealthy and powerful family of Roman nobles or “patricians”. His
grandmother, Rupilia Faustina, was a great-niece of the Emperor Trajan and the half-sister of
Emperor Hadrian’s wife, the Empress Vibia Sabina. Marcus’ great-grandfather on his mother’s
side, Lucius Catilius Severus, was appointed consul twice, the most senior rank among senators.
He also served, under Hadrian, as Urban Prefect, the official in charge of the city of Rome.
Marcus’ paternal grandfather, Marcus Annius Verus, served three times as consul, making him
another of Rome’s most senior statesmen. When Marcus was aged only about four, however,
his father died from unknown causes, before he had a chance to reach the rank of consul.
Marcus was raised mainly by his mother, Domitia Lucilla, who inherited a brick and tile factory.
She was an exceptionally wealthy and highly-educated woman, who spoke fluent Greek, and
surrounded herself with intellectuals.
Toward the end of Emperor Hadrian’s life, he named Antoninus Pius as his successor, the next
emperor. Hadrian instructed Antoninus to adopt Marcus, along with the son of a recentlydeceased Roman noble, a boy who would later become known as Lucius Verus. Antoninus was
Marcus’ uncle, having married his mother’s sister, Faustina the Elder. Antoninus also arranged
for Marcus to marry his daughter, Faustina the Younger. When Marcus became Emperor, in 161
CE, he immediately appointed Lucius Verus his co-emperor, and they ruled jointly. Lucius died
suddenly, perhaps from plague, eight years into their rule.

This is a list of notable relatives, as we have very incomplete details of Marcus’ extended family.
Marcus Annius Verus
(grandfather)

Rupilia Faustina
(grandmother)

Faustina the Elder
(paternal aunt)

Marcus Annius Verus
(father)

Faustina the Younger
(cousin)

Publius Calvisius Tullus
Ruso (grandfather)

Domitia Lucilla the
Elder (grandmother)

Domitia Lucilla/Calvilla
(mother)

Annia Cornificia
Faustina (sister)

Marcus Aurelius

THE IMPERIAL SUCCESSION
One of the most common questions people ask is why a good emperor like Marcus Aurelius
would allow a bad one, like his son Commodus, to succeed him on the throne. There’s more
to this than you might think at first. It’s worth noting, for instance, that Lucius Verus, having
been appointed co-emperor, was likely expected to outlive and succeed Marcus. Lucius was
nine years younger, and in better physical condition. After marrying Lucilla, Marcus’ daughter,
Lucius became his son-in-law, and our sources suggest he was even referred to as Marcus’ son.
Emperor Lucius Verus insisted, on returning from
the Parthian War, that Marcus’ two young sons,
Commodus and Marcus Annius Verus, should be
named Caesars, making them Marcus and Lucius’
designated successors. Commodus was five years
old at this time, and his brother was a year younger.
A few years later, Lucius Verus died unexpectedly,
and not long after, the young Caesar, Marcus Annius
Verus, also passed away. Commodus was left
Marcus’ only surviving son, and heir to the imperial
throne.
Marcus arranged for his daughter, Lucilla, to marry
Claudius Pompeianus, the most senior Roman
general in the Marcomannic Wars. Pompeianus,
a Syrian of humble birth, became not only the
emperor’s son-in-law but also the husband of an
augusta (akin to an empress), Lucilla being the
widow of the Emperor Lucius Verus. We’re told that Marcus invited his son-in-law, Pompeianus,
to assume the title of Caesar, which would presumably have placed him next in line to the
throne, perhaps ruling alongside Marcus and later Commodus. However, Pompeianus declined,
for reasons unknown – although it may have been feared that his appointment would have
incited a civil war in the east.
Another of Marcus’ most senior generals, called Avidius Cassius, was a Syrian, of exceptionally
noble birth, descended from several royal dynasties, and distantly related to Augustus,
the founder of the empire. He did, in fact, instigate a civil war, around this time, reputedly
complaining in part about Marcus’ promotion of men from humble backgrounds. Marcus,
who was leading the military campaign on the northern frontier, responded by rushing his son
from Rome to the army camp for protection. Commodus promptly adopted the toga virilis,
becoming legally an adult, in order to assume political office. After the death of Cassius, Marcus
soon appointed Commodus co-emperor, and he ruled alongside his father in a similar manner
to Lucius Verus, for the last three years of Marcus’ life, before succeeding him as sole emperor.
Our sources suggest that by the end of his life, Marcus realized that Commodus lacked the
qualities of a good emperor. It is possible that Marcus and the senate agreed that, as long as
the succession was clear, even a bad emperor was preferable to the threat of another civil war,
which could tear the empire apart.

This is a partial genealogy, showing some notable figures in Marcus’ adoptive family, and his
children.

•
•
•
•
•

Emperor Hadrian
(adoptive grandfather)

Vibia Sabina
(wife of Hadrian)

Faustina the Elder
(adoptive mother/
paternal aunt)

Emperor Antoninus
Pius (adoptive father)

Lucius Aelius Caesar
(adoptive son of
Hadrian)

Emperor Lucius Verus
(adoptive brother)

Emperor Marcus
Aurelius

Empress Faustina the
Younger (wife)

Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina b. Gemellus
Lucillae
Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla d.Titus Aelius
Antoninus
Titus Aelius Aurelius
Hadrianus
Domitia Faustina

•
•
•
•
•
•

Annia Aurelia Fadilla
Annia Corni cia Faustina Minor
Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus
Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus
(Caesar and later Emperor)
Marcus Annius Verus (Caesar)
Vibia Aurelia Sabina

MARCUS’ FRIENDS

Marcus Cornelius Fronto was Marcus’ Latin
rhetoric tutor and one of his closest family
friends. We know a great deal about their
relationship since many of Fronto’s letters were
discovered. It was Fronto’s job to train Marcus
so that one day he would be able to deliver
eloquent speeches in his role as emperor.
Herodes Atticus was Marcus’ Greek rhetoric
tutor and the most celebrated orator in
the empire. He was the leading figure, at
this time, in a cultural movement called The
Second Sophistic, a revival of the Sophists,
Greek intellectuals who taught rhetoric
and moral improvement. Herodes was a
controversial figure, and a critic of Stoicism,
whose relationship with Marcus was troubled.
However, he grew up in the same household as
Marcus’ mother, and remained a lifelong family
friend.
Apollonius of Chalcedon was a Greek professor of philosophy and perhaps the most
renowned teacher of Stoicism, following the death of Epictetus. He journeyed from Athens
to Rome, at the request of Antoninus, to become Marcus’ main Stoic tutor. Marcus greatly
admired his intellect although Fronto implies that the Stoicism lectures Marcus’ attended at this
time were quite dry and formal.
Junius Rusticus was a senior Roman statesman, who reputedly served in the military
alongside Arrian, during the rule of Hadrian, in a war against the Alani, a Sarmatian tribe who
had invaded Armenia. Shortly after returning to Rome, Rusticus became Marcus’ favorite Stoic
tutor, and a sort of mentor to him. Rusticus gave Marcus a private copy of The Discourses of
Epictetus transcribed by his friend Arrian. As emperor, Marcus later placed Rusticus in charge
of the city of Rome, appointing him Urban Prefect.
Claudius Pompeianus was Marcus’ senior general during the Marcomannic Wars. Marcus
arranged for Pompeianus to marry his daughter, Lucilla, the widow of Emperor Lucius Verus.
This placed Pompeianus in line to the throne, although he reputedly declined Marcus’ offer to
name him Caesar, and appoint him as successor. Instead, he seems to have agreed to serve as
a sort of guardian and mentor to Marcus’ wayward son, Commodus.

Some of these dates are approximate, based on the available evidence.

170 – 174

Timeline of Key Events
Marcus Aurelius born
Possible date of Marcus Annius Verus’ death (father)
Begins studying philosophy, aged 12
Adopted by Antoninus, aged 17
Death of Emperor Hadrian
Emperor Antoninus Pius takes the throne
Marries Faustina the Younger
Death of Antoninus Pius
Emperor Marcus Aurelius takes the throne, aged 40
Lucius Verus acclaimed co-emperor
Parthian War begins
Outbreak of Antonine Plague
Roman victory in The Parthian War
First Marcomannic War begins
Death of Lucius Verus
Death of Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (son)
Likely date during which Marcus wrote The Meditations
Possible date of Boukoloi uprising in Egypt
Civil War of Avidius Cassius
Death of Faustina (wife)
Second Marcomannic War begins
Marcus Aurelius dies, aged 59, probably from plague

MARCUS’ ENEMIES

Stoics believe that all human beings are fellow-citizens of the universe, regardless of their race
or culture, an idea known as cosmopolitanism, from the Greek term meaning “citizen of the
cosmos”. Marcus frequently refers in The Meditations to the need to avoid anger or hatred
toward others, even his supposed enemies, and his duty to treat all men with justice, fairness,
and kindness. He was actually writing these words during the First Marcomannic War, while
meeting with foreign envoys to negotiate peace, and even engaging in warfare against those he
sought to view benevolently, as his own brothers.
Shortly after Marcus was acclaimed emperor, King Vologases IV of Parthia invaded the
Roman client-state of Armenia, instigating a Parthian War, which would last about five years.
About five hundred years earlier, Alexander the Great had conquered Persia, turning it into
a Hellenistic kingdom, inherited by one of his generals, which became known as the Seleucid
Empire. The Seleucid Empire was later conquered by the Parthians, a race of tribal warriors
who fought primarily from horseback, using high-quality steel weapons and armor, making them
the “barbarian” army most feared by the Romans.
Following the Parthian War, King Ballomar of the Marcomanni, a Germanic tribe whose
name probably means the “border men,” led a massive invasion of the Roman empire itself.
Ballomar formed a secret alliance with many other Germanic tribes who lived along the Rivers
Rhine and Danube. They invaded the northern provinces and fought their way south along the
Amber Road, a major trade route. They eventually reached and besieged the wealthy Roman
city of Aquileia. Ballomar was the first “barbarian” ruler to lead an army across the Alps into
northern Italy since Hannibal centuries earlier.
King Fustius, the ruler of the Quadi, had probably been a Roman ally, as his people were one
of the largest Germanic tribes and the Amber Road passed through their homeland, potentially
making them wealthy from trade. At first, the Quadi took part in the invasion led by their
cousins the Marcomanni but, following negotiations, Marcus persuaded them to accept peace
terms. Fustius was later deposed by the Quadi, and replaced by a more warlike chieftain called
Areiogaseus who resumed the war against the Romans.
King Banadaspus was the ruler of the Iazyges, a warlike Sarmatian tribe, located to the east
of the Quadi. The Sarmatians were an Iranian race, believed by the Romans to be related
to the ancient Scythians. They were nomads, who drove cattle across the steppe, and fought
primarily from horseback, like the Parthians, although Sarmatian weapons and armor were
made from carved hooves rather than steel. Nevertheless, the Romans feared the charge of
their heavy cavalry. Banadaspus looted Roman provinces around the same time as the initial
Germanic invasion, and his horsemen perhaps took to the field with their Germanic neighbors.
Later, he tried to sue for peace but Marcus refused his offer, arguing that he could not be
trusted having already participated in the Germanic rebellion. Banadaspus was deposed by a
more warlike chieftain called Zanticus who resumed hostilities against the Romans.
While Marcus was busy fighting the Quadi and Sarmatians, a warrior-priest called Isidorus led
a native Egyptian tribe called the Boukoloi or “Herdsmen” in an uprising against Roman rule.

After gradually drawing neighboring tribes to his cause, he was able to besiege the great city
of Alexandria and through force of numbers defeated the legion garrisoned there in a pitched
battle. Marcus had no choice but to send the nearest senior Roman commander to break the
siege.
Avidius Cassius was one of Marcus’ most distinguished generals in the Parthian War, and was
rewarded by being made governor of Syria, although it was his own homeland – something
normally against Roman policy. Cassius was the general sent to liberate Alexandria following
the Boukoloi uprising, the city in which he’d lived as a child. He was granted more powers until
he became a sort of viceroy over the eastern provinces. Eventually, claiming that Marcus had
died, or was dying, he returned to Egypt and was acclaimed emperor by the legion there. This
effectively instigated a civil war, and Marcus was forced to march a loyalist army against him,
although Cassius was assassinated by his own officers a few months later, bringing the matter
to an end with little blood shed except his own.

QUESTIONS, QUOTES, AND READING
STUDY QUESTIONS
•
•
•

Why do you think Marcus allowed Commodus to succeed him as emperor?
Should we expect Marcus to have abolished slavery because of his Stoic beliefs?
What do you think are the potential disadvantages and benefits of Stoicism as a philosophy
of life?

FAMOUS QUOTES FROM THE MEDITATIONS
•
•
•
•
•
•

Waste no more time debating what a good man should be, just be one. 10.16
The cucumber is bitter. Throw it away. There are brambles in the path. Turn aside. That’s
enough. You don’t need to add “Why are such things found in the world?” 8.50
The mind, unconquered by violent passions, is a citadel, for a man has no fortress more
impregnable in which to find refuge and remain safe forever. 8.48
Be like a headland of rock against which the waves continually break. It stands fast
nevertheless, and around it the crashing waters come to rest. 4.49
In but a short while you shall be ashes, or a few dry bones, and possibly just a name, or not
even a name. 5.33
Take a bird’s-eye view of the world: it’s endless gatherings and endless ceremonies, many
journeys in both storm and calm, and the transformations of things coming to be, existing,
and ceasing to be. 9.30

RECOMMENDED READING
Modern Translations of The Meditations
• Meditations: The Philosophy Classic (2020), translated by George Long, edited with an
introduction by Donald J. Robertson. This is an old but popular translation, updated for
modern readers in this edition.
• Meditations: A New Translation (2002) translated by Gregory Hayes. This is a very readable
little book, a very readable modern translation, although not the most literal version
available.
• Meditations: with selected correspondence (2011) translated by Robin Hard with
commentary by Christopher Gill. This is a more literal modern translation, good for
comparison, and it contains a selection of the letters between Marcus and Fronto, as well
as valuable commentary by Prof. Chris Gill
• Meditations: The Annotated Edition (2021) by Robin Waterfield. An excellent modern
translation with detailed notes.
Philosophical Commentary and Analysis
• Marcus Aurelius: Philosophy in the Roman World (2020) by John Sellars
• The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (2001) by Pierre Hadot
• Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed (2012) William O. Stephens

ABOUT THE GRAPHIC NOVEL

Verissimus: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus
Aurelius from St. Martin’s Press is a fullcolor graphic novel about the life of Marcus
Aurelius by Donald J. Robertson and awardwinning illustrator, Zé Nuno Fraga. It takes
the form of a sweeping epic that interweaves
action, closely-based on historical accounts
of his rule, with insights and wisdom derived
from Marcus’ philosophical reflections in The
Meditations.
“Donald Robertson is one of my favorite
writers about Stoicism.” – Ryan Holiday,
author of The Daily Stoic
“Whether you’re new to Marcus Aurelius or
already know him as a friend and guide, this
graphic novel will open your eyes.” – Robin
Waterfield, translator of Marcus Aurelius and
Epictetus
“Represents the vanguard of the next phase of the ongoing Stoic renaissance.” – Prof. William
B. Irvine, author of A Guide to the Good Life
“A wonderful and engaging introduction, like no other.” – Dr. John Sellars, author of Lessons in
Stoicism
“A superb graphic novel that provides stunning insights into one of the most interesting figures
of antiquity, as well as into the philosophy that guided him throughout his life.” – Prof. Massimo
Pigliucci, author of How to Be a Stoic
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Donald Robertson is a cognitive-behavioral psychotherapist who writes about ancient
philosophy and modern psychology. He was born in Scotland and now divides his time
between Toronto, Canada, and Athens, Greece.
His other books include How to Think Like a Roman Emperor (St. Martin’s Press), which
combines historical anecdotes from the life of Marcus Aurelius with self-help advice based on
Stoic philosophy. Ancient Lives: Marcus Aurelius (Yale) is a prose biography of Marcus Aurelius,
which examines how his philosophical beliefs can provide insight into his actions as emperor.
The Meditations (Capstone) is a modernized version of the classic George Long translation,
with an introductory essay by Donald Robertson.