International Space Station

# International Space Station

The **International Space Station** (**ISS**) [^3] is a space station in low Earth orbit (LEO). It is the product of the International Space Station program and is operated by five partner space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan), and CSA (Canada).[^25] It is the first space station built, maintained and crewed through international cooperation and the largest human spacecraft ever constructed.[^26] [^27] It is an orbital research station, where scientific experiments in microgravity are conducted and the space environment is studied.[^27] Since 2 November 2000, it has hosted the longest continuous presence of humans in space.[^28] Alongside *Tiangong*, it is one of the only two currently operational space stations.[^29]

The station orbits between 51.64° north and south, at about 400 kilometres (250 miles) [^30] above Earth, below the Van Allen radiation belts and most space debris.[^31] Its orbit takes it at 7.67 km/s (27,600 km/h; 17,200 mph) roughly every 93 minutes around Earth, 15.5 times a day.[^32] Measuring 109 m (358 ft) (with solar arrays) by 73 m (239 ft),[^33] it is as large as a full-sized football or soccer field,[^34] and has a pressurised internal volume of 1,005 m <sup>3</sup> (35,491 ft <sup>3</sup>), comparable to a Boeing 747 airliner.[^33]

The station is a modular space station divided into two main sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), developed by Roscosmos, and the US Orbital Segment (USOS), built by NASA, ESA, JAXA, and CSA. The Integrated Truss Structure connects the station's vast system of solar panels and radiators to its 16 major pressurized modules. These modules support scientific research, crew habitation, storage, spacecraft control, and airlock operations. The ISS has eight docking and berthing ports for visiting spacecraft. In total, the station consists of 43 different modules and elements.[^35] Crews visit via the Soyuz and Crew Dragon spacecraft, and previously the Space Shuttle.[^4] Cargo supply craft include Progress, Cargo Dragon, Cygnus, Automated Transfer Vehicle, and HTV-X.

The ISS is the political product of the development of international cooperation in space throughout the space age. The station combines two previously planned crewed Earth-orbiting stations: the United States' Space Station *Freedom* and the Soviet Union's *Mir-2*. The first ISS module was launched in 1998, with major components delivered by Proton, Soyuz and Space Shuttle launch vehicles. Long-term occupancy began with the arrival of the Expedition 1 crew on 2 November 2000. Since then, the ISS has remained continuously inhabited for 25 years and 240 days, the longest continuous human presence in space. As of August 2025, 290 individuals from 26 countries had visited the station.[^36]

Future plans for the ISS include the addition of at least one module, the Payload Power Thermal Module by Axiom Space, forming the commercial segment of the station. The station is expected to remain operational until the end of 2030, by which parts of it are to be used for Axiom Station and the Russian Orbital Service Station. After this the ISS is planned to be de-orbited using the US Deorbit Vehicle,[^37] but critique of this plan and the proposal of parking the station at a more stable higher orbit has gathered congressional support as of 2026.

## Conception

A painting of Apollo–Soyuz, a first milestone in international spaceflight

Early into the space age and ensuing space race the US and USSR began to find opportunities for potential collaborations in outer space. This culminated in the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, the first docking of spacecraft from two different spacefaring nations. The ASTP was considered a success, and further joint missions were also contemplated.

One such concept was International Skylab, which proposed launching the backup Skylab B space station for a mission that would see multiple visits by both Apollo and Soyuz crew vehicles.[^38] More ambitious was the Skylab-Salyut Space Laboratory, which proposed docking the Skylab B to a Soviet Salyut space station. Falling budgets and rising Cold War tensions in the late 1970s saw these concepts fall by the wayside, along with another plan to have the Space Shuttle dock with a Salyut space station.[^39]

In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called *Freedom* as a counterpart to the Salyut and *Mir* space stations. In 1984 the European Space Agency (ESA) was invited to participate in Space Station *Freedom*, and the ESA approved the Columbus laboratory by 1987.[^40] The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), or *Kibō*, was announced in 1985, as part of the *Freedom* space station in response to a NASA request in 1982.

In early 1985, science ministers from the ESA countries approved the *Columbus* program, the most ambitious effort in space undertaken by that organization at the time. The plan spearheaded by Germany and Italy included a module which would be attached to *Freedom*, and with the capability to evolve into a full-fledged European orbital outpost before the end of the century.[^41]

Increasing costs threw these plans into doubt in the early 1990s. Congress was unwilling to provide enough money to build and operate *Freedom*, and demanded NASA increase international participation to defray the rising costs or they would cancel the entire project outright.[^42]

Simultaneously, the USSR was conducting planning for the Mir-2 space station, and had begun constructing modules for the new station by the mid-1980s. However the collapse of the Soviet Union required these plans to be greatly downscaled, and soon Mir-2 was in danger of never being launched at all.[^43] With both space station projects in jeopardy, American and Russian officials met and proposed they be combined.[^44]

In September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station.[^45] They also agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the United States would be involved in the Mir program, including American Shuttles docking, in the Shuttle– *Mir* program.[^46]

## Purpose

The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial memorandum of understanding between NASA and Roscosmos have been realised.[^47] In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic,[^48] and educational purposes.[^49]

[^1]: standard;[^14] past min. 2; past max. 13 [^15]

[^2]: With the launch of the first module: *Zarya*

[^3]: Russian: Междунаро́дная косми́ческая ста́нция (МКС), romanized: *Mezhdunaródnaya kosmícheskaya stántsiya*, French: *Station Spatiale Internationale (SSI)*, German: *Internationale Raumstation*, Japanese: 国際宇宙ステーション, romanized: *Kokusaiuchū sutēshon*

[^4]: Boeing Starliner, designed for crew transport, made one crewed mission to the station in 2024, and one uncrewed in 2022, both experiencing malfunctions. One cargo flight is planned with the future of the craft unclear.

[^5]: *Pirs* was connected to the nadir port of Zvezda now occupied by *Nauka*.

[^6]: partially retracted

[^7]: "Zarya" has several meanings: "daybreak" or "dawn" (in the morning) or "afterglow", "evening glow" or "sunset" (in the evening), but NASA and Roscosmos translate it as "sunrise." [^128]

[^8]: Privately funded travellers who have objected to the term include Dennis Tito,[^282] Mark Shuttleworth,[^283] Gregory Olsen, Richard Garriott,[^284] [^285] and Anousheh Ansari.[^286]

[^9]: ESA director Jörg Feustel-Büechl said Russia had no right to send “amateurs” to the ISS. A standoff at the Johnson Space Center occurred when NASA manager Robert Cabana refused to train Tito alongside commander Talgat Musabayev and his crew, who insisted Tito was adequately qualified.

[^10]: Including the modified DC-1, M-MIM2 and M-UM module transports

[^11]: Includes both crewed and uncrewed missions

[^12]: The Prichal aft, forward, port and starboard ports still have their protective covers in place and have yet to be used since the module originally docked at the station.

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